European Free Trade Association Research Articles

Evolution of EFTA in Differentiated Integration within Europe

The European Free Trade Association (EFTA), established over 60 years ago as an alternative platform for fostering cooperation, has evolved into a crucial component of the pan-European project. The organizational framework underpinning its operations, its developmental trajectory with specific focus on divergences, and the models of differentiated integration (DI) have significantly contributed to its evolution.EFTA's distinct organizational structure, coupled with its pragmatic legal framework, serves as the foundation of its operations. A detailed examination allows for a clear distinction between Switzerland and the three member states of the European Economic Area (EEA), namely Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway.Regarding the EEA, its legal framework is established through collaborative development of legal instruments with the EU. The thematic allocation is carefully structured based on existing competencies; officials of EFTA's pillar bodies within the two-pillar EEA structure maintain productive relations with the EU, while others focus on internal matters. The geographical location of these bodies plays a decisive role: Brussels and Luxembourg are aligned with a broad Eurocentric decision-making paradigm, while those within EFTA prioritize endogenous agendas.Switzerland's integration trajectory relies on a diverse array of regulatory mechanisms aimed at bridging disparate areas and fostering cooperation among participating states. A sectoral approach and bilateral agreement packages with the EU are pivotal, with several EFTA bodies operating within Swiss jurisdiction facilitating convergence with the European market. Amidst the current regional turbulence, the convergence of various factors has enabled EFTA to align with the EU's approach to differentiated integration. While earlier scholarly perspectives on the phenomenon were limited in criteria and tools, subsequent empirical developments have provided a more nuanced understanding. The DI models adopted by EFTA member states closely resemble those of the EU, highlighting their alignment. Ultimately, the Association has become an integral part of European integration, with the quartet of participating countries maintaining greater flexibility in decision-making processes.

The European regions in the global value chains: New results with new data

AbstractThis article contains the methodology and main results related to the update and extension of the widest interregional input–output tables for the entire EU27, UK and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) countries. This work continues the outstanding effort developed in the past years regarding the estimation and analysis of different multiregional input–output (MRIO) databases at the country level (world input–output database, EXIOBASE, ICIO, FIGARO, etc.) and the MRIO tables developed for the European Union (EU) at the NUTS2 level. The main contribution consists of updating and extending the current EUREGIO collection to obtain a EUREGIO table for 2017, which will be referred (NUTS‐2 Rev.2016) for all the EU27 + UK + EFTA countries and will be embedded in the new FIGARO multicountry 2017. Such effort was developed in the context of the ESPON‐IRIE project. This article summarises the methodology used and compares the results obtained with the ones of the main benchmarks, providing an analysis of the national and regional participation in the global value chains (GVCs). The main results suggest that, on average, 65% of value added is embodied in the goods and services sold to the same NUTS‐2 region, 16% is embodied in the ones sold to regions in the same country and the remaining 20% is exported (to other countries). Exploring the heterogeneity within these figures can also be seen that the variety is higher across regions than across sectors. Our analysis suggests that, to a large extent, the heterogeneous participation of EU27 + UK + EFTA regions in the GVCs is explained by their sectoral structure more than by the regional idiosyncratic characteristics. Such results open the floor for the correct design of industrial policies, embedded in the smart specialisation paradigm.

European Union Proficiency Tests for pesticide residues in cereals and feedstuff, from 2007 to 2022- Data collection experience

The European Union Reference Laboratory for pesticide residues in cereals and feeding stuff (EURL-CF) has, for 16 consecutive years since 2007, organized European Union Proficiency Tests (EUPTs) for analysis of multiple pesticide residues in various cereals and feedstuff commodities. The EUPTs are directed to National Reference Laboratories (NRLs), and official laboratories (OfLs) in European member (EU) states and in European Free Trade Association (EFTA) countries. The aim of the EUPTs is to gain information regarding the quality, accuracy and comparability of pesticide residue data in cereals and feedstuff reported by different EU and EFTA laboratories, to help evaluate and improve their performance. This article summarizes 16 years’ experience in processing and analyzing results for EUPTs for pesticide residues in cereals and feedstuff. It provides an overview of the performance and development of as many as 160 laboratories throughout the years. Results are highlighted in terms of the number of participants, analytical scope, z scores, false positive and false negative reported results, and classification of laboratories. The performance of laboratories in the EUPTs has improved over time. A notable increase was observed in NRLs and OfLs classified as category A, indicating satisfactory overall performance and scope coverage for the majority of participating laboratories.

Paying the Price for Allies: Britain, the Seven and the EFTA Stockholm Negotiations

ABSTRACT Few scholars would dispute that negotiations for the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), which formally commenced near Stockholm in June 1959, moved at breakneck speed. Generally acknowledged too are the reasons behind this haste: the need swiftly to find another route to working with the European Economic Community (EEC) following the collapse of the wider Free Trade Area (FTA) proposal, the degree of consensus already achieved by the Association’s founder members during the FTA talks, and the fact that few felt EFTA was a permanent alternative to an arrangement with the Six. But none of this negated the very real obstacles faced by negotiators. Each indeed obliged the Seven collectively – and, as by far the single largest economic actor, Britain specifically – to reconsider the scope of the agreement under discussion and the sorts of concessions required to reach a deal. And yet this is a moment in EFTA’s founding often glossed over in extant literature. This article consequently provides a long-overdue detailed study of the build-up to, and evolution of, the Stockholm negotiations, examining the topics on which negotiators focused and the conditions under which compromises eventually emerged. In so doing, it points to the agency of smaller EFTA states in being able to exercise maximum influence at critical junctures in the process and explains why the timing of their demands as well as the nature of the negotiations themselves ultimately influenced their success.

Determinants of Peruvian Export Efficiency: Poisson PML Estimation Approach

Given their increasing engagement with the global economy, emerging countries such as Peru depend on their export sector. This research evaluates the level of efficiency of Peruvian exports (EF) and the impact of four regional trade agreements (RTAs) (MERCOSUR, the EU, the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), and the Andean Community of Nations (CAN)), twelve bilateral agreements (BAs), the World Trade Organization (WTO), institutional distance (ID), cultural distance (CD), foreign direct investment (FDI), trade freedom (TF), and traditional (TX) and nontraditional exports (NTX) by sector on the export efficiency of Peru. This non-experimental study used a dataset of 38 countries from 1995 to 2019. An extended stochastic frontier gravity (SFGM) ten-variable model with the one-step estimation method was applied to estimate export efficiency. Poisson’s PML estimator was used to investigate the factors that impact export efficiency (EF). The results showed that the export efficiency of Peru was moderate, ranging between 0.462 and 0.458, with a stationary trend, indicating considerable export potential between Peru and its trading partners. The major contributors to this efficiency are ID (voice and accountability, corruption control, nonadherence to the rule of law), NTX (chemicals and metal mechanics), and BA with American countries. On the other hand, CD (indulgence, long-term orientation, individualism, uncertainty, and lack of a culture of achievement), TF, agreements with MERCOSUR and the EU, FDI, and TX weakened the efficiency of exports. Finally, CAN, EFTA, BA with Asian countries, FDI, TX, and WTO did not have a significant effect on the EF. Recommendations to policy makers are presented.

Sustainable development in the Mercosur-European Union Association Agreement: tensions and expectations

This article offers an internationalist perspective on the environmental issue within interregional agreements, focusing on the European Union-Mercosur Free Trade Association Agreement, which is currently in the process of ratifications. We qualitatively analyze the history and evolution of international environmental law, the importance of the indicative origin of said legal discipline, and the dialogue of sources typical of Public International Law in order to highlight the strengths of Soft Law in the construction of a global paradigm of. Sustainable Development. We consider the aspects of environmental regulations, where the legal nature of the right to sustainable development is analyzed, as well as the limitation of the sovereignty of States in these issues; in conceiving it as a fundamental right of the human person and an international jus cogens norm. The sustainable development article of the Agreement is considered as a relevant point of analysis, and how it could have an impact on the dispute resolution mechanisms and procedures established by MERCOSUR and the European Union regarding disputes that may arise in relation to commercial activities that may affect the environment. The methodology was deductive, with bibliographic survey, analysis of jurisprudence and exegesis of normative texts.

What makes cities happy? Factors contributing to life satisfaction in European cities

The purpose of this study is to identify the main factors of city life satisfaction across Europe. Data come from the recent fifth survey on quality of life in European cities and cover 83 cities located in the European Union, the European Free Trade Association countries, the United Kingdom, the Western Balkan Region and Turkey. In addition to running classical econometric analysis, we quantify the relative importance of the various determinants of overall satisfaction with life in cities, thus offering novel insights to shape evidence-based urban policies. The results highlight that two main policy-relevant areas contribute to the satisfaction with city life: the presence of amenities, on the one hand, and the inclusiveness and safety feeling, on the other hand. Socio-economic characteristics are generally not relevant, with the exception of economic insecurity. JEL Codes: R10, R58, I31

The trade-off between health system resiliency and efficiency: evidence from COVID-19 in European regions

The objective of this paper was to investigate the existence of a trade-off between health system resilience and the economic efficiency of the health system, using data for 173 regions in the European Union and the European Free Trade Association countries. Data Envelopment Analysis was used to measure the efficiency of regional health systems before the COVID-19 pandemic. Then, a spatial econometrics model was used to estimate whether this measure of efficiency, adjusted for several covariates, has a significant impact on regional health system resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic, measured by the number of COVID-19 deaths per hundred thousand inhabitants. The results show that COVID-19 death rates were significantly higher in regions with higher population density, higher share of employment in industry, and higher share of women in the population. Results also show that regions with higher values of the health system efficiency index in 2017 had significantly higher rates of COVID-19 deaths in 2020 and 2021, suggesting the existence of a trade-off between health system efficiency and health system resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Trade Agreements and Sustainability: Exploring the Potential of Global Value Chain (GVC) Obligations

ABSTRACT This article investigates the potential of global value chain (GVC)-orientated sustainability provisions in regional and bilateral trade agreements (FTAs). Such provisions impose social and environmental obligations directly onto GVCs, as opposed to creating obligations for governments. The theoretical potential of GVC provisions is examined, and the concepts of effectiveness and legitimacy are introduced as values by which to assess them. Four recent sets of provisions are then scrutinized. These are (i) palm oil sustainability standards from the Indonesia–European Free Trade Association (EFTA) Comprehensive Economic Partnerhsip Agreement (CEPA) FTA, (ii) hen welfare standards in the European Union–Mercosur Association Agreement, (iii) a stipulation of a minimum average wage for the automobile industry in the US–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA), and (iv) enforcement of collective bargaining and freedom of association directly against factories, also in the USMCA. All of these provisions are found to have significant deficiencies. At the same time, it is argued that three different governance models underpin them, namely (i) third-party certification schemes, (ii) domestic regulations of one of the parties, and (iii) bespoke arrangements created for the FTA in question. The article therefore considers the potential and drawbacks of each governance model in terms of their effectiveness and legitimacy, as well as alternative and complementary commitments including unilateral measures and subject-specific trade agreements.

Implementation of Implant Traceability at Landspitali Hospital

Iceland is obliged to adopt the regulations of the European Union in cooperation with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). In 2019, Regulation (EU) 2017/745 (2017) concerning medical devices was approved by the Icelandic Parliament. The regulation was established to prevent the mishandling of equipment used in medical procedures and thereby enhance patient safety. One requirement is complete traceability of an implant – an object used in a procedure and left in the body for longer or shorter periods – from the manufacturer until it is used in a patient. To ensure traceability, it is necessary to review and simplify the entire process and to prevent errors as much as possible. The Lean methodology, which focuses on simplifying processes, eliminating waste, and getting things right the first time, is used for project management at Landspitali, the National University Hospital of Iceland. Landspitali’s working environment is complex, and mistakes can be costly. There is a high demand for data collection and record keeping, which contribute to ensuring patient safety. The process of implementing changes to workflows needs to be carefully managed, and it is crucial to inform and establish trust with those involved in workflows and technical solutions. Involving staff in process improvement using Lean principles enhances insight and fosters greater acceptance of changes, making it easier to respond to problems and external circumstances affecting the transition.

The EFTA Court’s Judgment in Telenor: A Missed Opportunity to Clarify the Scope of Product Aggregation under the Margin Squeeze Test

Margin Squeeze is a type of abuse of dominance which is not without its critics and the judgement by the European Free Trade Association (‘EFTA’) Court largely confirms the Court of Justice of the European Union’s (‘CJEU’) case law in the area. The case concerned Telenor, the national incumbent telecom operator in Norway. In December 2012, the EFTA Surveillance Authority (‘ESA’) conducted unannounced inspections at Telenor’s premises in Oslo. In February 2016, ESA sent a statement of objections to Telenor, which was followed up by a supplementary statement of objections in June 2019. On 29 June 2020, ESA delivered its final decision finding that Telenor had abused its dominant position and imposed fines of EUR 112 million. The abuse consisted of squeezing rivals’ margins when supplying stand-alone mobile broadband services (‘MBB’) to residential users in Norway. ESA’s decision found three separate infringements related to instances of margin squeezes imposed by Telenor on Network Norway AS from 1 August 2008 to 31 August 2010; on Ventelo AS from 1 January 2008 to 30 November 2010; and on service providers from 1 January 2008 to 31 December 2012.

Die EFTA-Staaten und ihre (un-)komplizierten Beziehungen mit der Europäischen Union

On 1 January 1994 – almost 30 years ago – the Agreement on the European Economic Area (EEA) entered into force. Its purpose is to create a homogeneous and dynamic economic area between the Member States of the European Union (EU) and the members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway. Today, the EEA Agreement is still the most far-reaching and institutionalised agreement between the EU and non-member states and can therefore be seen as a benchmark for a privileged partnership with the EU. This paper describes how the institutional rules of the EEA and the level of integration of the EEA/EFTA states have changed over time. It shows that developments towards both more integration and more differentiation can be observed in the EEA. It thus addresses various institutional challenges in the relationship between the EU and associated states.

Sweden’s Policy of Non-Alignment in the European Integration Processes, 1950s — Early 1960s

The article deals with the position of Stockholm in relation to the integration processes in Europe in the 1950s — early 1960s. It makes an attempt to explain the reason why the Swedish leadership avoided participating in the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community. It is also considered the motives of the Swedish Government, which prompted to participate in the European Free Trade Association for the purpose of long-term cooperation. The author refers to the minutes of the meetings of the Swedish Riksdag (Riksdagens protokoll), which allow to determine the positions in various political circles of Sweden regarding the “Schumann Plan” and the Treaty of Rome, as well as the possible participation of Stockholm in the integration processes. In addition, the article shows the reaction of the leaders of the bipolar system blocs — the USSR and the USA — to the actions of the Swedish leadership in relation to the European integration processes.

Structures for the care of people with dementia: a European comparison

BackgroundDementia is a disease that impacts people with dementia, their families, and the healthcare system. In 2018, the number of people with dementia in the EU, the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), and the UK was estimated to be 9.1 million. National dementia strategies and publications by organisations such as Alzheimer Europe outline how dementia-specific care should be designed. This study aims to provide insights into existing formal care structures, models of good practise, and gaps in dementia-specific care for people with dementia in 17 European countries.MethodsThe research is based on guided interviews withcountry-specific care experts. A mixed-methods approach with a combination ofopen and closed questions was used. All interviews wererecorded and transcribed verbatim based on the transcription rules of Kuckarts(2010). For data evaluation, the qualitative content analysis model of Mayring(2014) was used.ResultsIn all 17 countries, efforts fordementia-friendly care and models of good care practise exist. However, thereare large differences between European countries regarding the spread ofdementia-specific services. In nine countries (Bulgaria, Finland, Italy,Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, the UK), there arealready nationwide structures, while in five countries (Belgium, Greece,Ireland, Portugal, Romania), services are only available in certain regions. Inthree countries (Austria, Denmark, Germany) dementia-specific outpatientservices are widespread nationwide, whereas inpatient services are not.Simultaneously, in all countries, areas with major care gaps exist. SeveralEuropean states have an urgent need for action concerning the expansion of theprovision of dementia-specific services, the reduction of regional differencesregarding the provision of care, the elimination of barriers to access to care,the dementia-friendliness of services, and the participation of people with dementiaand their relatives in care and research.ConclusionsTo reduce the existing structural inequalitiesin care between and within European countries, and to establish quality-relatedminimum standards in the care of people with dementia, transnational conceptsare needed. The EU, in cooperation with care planners, research institutions,care providers, and patient organisations, should develop European careguidelines or dementia plans that contain concrete measures, schedules, andbudgets.

GHG Emissions and Economic Growth in the European Union, Norway, and Iceland: A Validated Time-Series Approach Based on a Small Number of Observations

This research aims to ensure methodological conformance and to test the validity of its empirical application. To do so, the study analysed differentiation of the development patterns of four time-series variables. The relationships between greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, employment, inflation, and gross domestic product (GDP) at constant prices were analysed, comparing the European Union (EU-27) and two European Free Trade Association countries. The study period covers twelve years of monthly and quarterly data from the beginning of 2010 to mid-2021, where the highest frequency of data was 138 observations. The methodology used included unit root testing and the vector autoregressive model (VAR). The study’s main results show that GDP at constant prices significantly affected GHG emissions in the EU-27 countries. Meanwhile, the lag between inflation and employment did not have a considerable impact. This finding shows that inflation was not a stable variable and had a strong autocorrelation. Variable employment did not follow a normal distribution. It was necessary for this research to adopt a suitable model for the technical procedure.

The Empirical Analysis of Degree-Mobile Students

The current study aims at providing empirical and theoretical support to the important topic of international student mobility (ISM) in Europe. Specifically, it provides empirical analysis of degree-mobile students in 32 countries: the European Union (EU), the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the United Kingdom. The study is based on the aggregate data from the European Tertiary Education Register (ETER). The goal is to construct indicator (benchmark) for analyzing degree mobility of students at the country level. The empirical analysis is conducted from the perspective of a receiving country. It effectively helps to establish the context and content of future discussions on how to address the practical problem of measuring and evaluating the dynamics of students flows in Europe.

Beyond Downloading: Venues for Associated Neighbouring Countries to Influence EU Law and Policies

AbstractThe European Union (EU) has over time developed close relations, typically taking the form of acquis‐based association agreements, with the countries in its Western and Eastern neighbourhood. This article examines when, where and how these non‐Member States can influence the terms of their association with the EU's law and policies via institutional venues. It expands on the literature of external Europeanization and governance, which has mainly focused on the downloading of EU rules by these countries. Yet, the associated neighbours have the opportunity to exert influence at different stages of the law or policy‐making process: first, before the downloading of relevant new rules by uploading or cross‐loading, that is, by attempting to initiate or shape these rules during the agenda‐setting and the formulation phases; and second, during or after the downloading by tweaking or rebuffing relevant new rules in the adoption and implementation phases. These mechanisms of influence at different points in time and in different bodies are illustrated by examples from the countries of the European Free Trade Association, of the Eastern Partnership and in the EU's customs union. The findings indicate that more uploading opportunities can generally be expected, the more downloading is required, and the better the associated countries' access to EU bodies in the early stage of the formulation of new rules. Weak uploading opportunities make joint bodies more important for tweaking and rebuffing. The proposed conceptual framework contributes to the study of external differentiated integration and opens new research avenues.

The specialty of oral and maxillofacial surgery (OMFS) in Europe – Part 1: service configuration, regulation, and provision

Oral and maxillofacial surgical (OMFS) practice and training in Europe is supported by the OMFS Section of the Union of European Medical Specialists (UEMS). Across Europe the number of OMFS specialists per 100,000 varies from 3.0 (Switzerland) to 0.28 (Ireland). The two types of OMFS within the European Union (EU) under Directive 2005/36 and European Free Trade Association (EFTA) treaties are dual degree dental, oral and maxillofacial surgery (DOMFS) and single medical degree maxillofacial surgery (MFS). Automatic recognition of OMFS specialist qualifications is possible only between nations which have the same (or both) types of medical OMFS. Otherwise, individual specialists must apply for a Certificate of Eligibility for Specialist Registration (CESR). DOMFS: 20 European nations have dual degree OMFS. Of these, 12 EU nations are DOMFS in Annex V, 3 are DOMFS in the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) Treaty, and one has mandated dual degree OMFS but is a dental specialty. The United Kingdom has dual degree OMFS. Two MFS nations have had mandated dual degree training for more than 10 years and one has both DOMFS and MFS training, with DOMFS recommended. Although no nation with dual degree DOMFS has transitioned back to single degree MFS, there are pressures to do so within Finland and Norway. MFS: 11 EU nations have single medical degree MFS (and 4 DOMFS nations also have MFS as a legacy specialty). Four nations in the EU/EFTA do not yet have a medical specialty of OMFS: Sweden, Iceland, Denmark, and Estonia.

The Emergence of the Established “By Law” Criterion for Reviewing European Judicial Appointments

AbstractThe “established by law” criterion recently emerged as an independent element of Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), through the European Court of Human Rights’ (ECtHR’s) judgment in Ástráðsson v. Iceland. The criterion imposes the obligation on states to appoint judges in accordance with the respective legal framework. Its emergence occurred at a precarious moment in European intergovernmental politics, with illiberal governments in several European states exhibiting tactics aimed at softening obstacles to their governing powers, upheld by their respective judiciaries. Through a dialog between the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) Court, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), and the ECtHR, the “established by law” criterion has now emerged in the European constitutional repository for thwarting such tactics. In this article, the story of this development is told through highlights from the case law of the European supranational courts and through the Icelandic backstory of the Ástráðsson case. This story reveals important nuances in how the case law needs to be understood with regards to the constitutional forces at stake. The conceptual approach of the ECtHR in Ástráðsson is also analyzed in context with Lon Fuller’s rule of law principle of congruence, which provides a framework for evaluating the merits of the Court’s tactic.

The specialty of oral and maxillofacial surgery (OMFS) in Europe – Part 2: training environment including the new Union of European Medical Specialists (UEMS) Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery European Training Requirement (OMFS ETR)

OMFS training in Europe has incrementally improved over the last 50 years. However, not all European nations have a formal written curriculum/syllabus, quality indicators, exit examinations, or guidelines for training programmes or trainers. In 2021 the OMFS Section of the Union of European Medical Specialists (UEMS) created an OMFS European Training Requirement (OMFS ETR) to help address these gaps and raise training standards in Europe. This paper includes key lessons from OMFS training programmes across Europe. It also summarises the new OMFS ETR as a comprehensive curriculum and syllabus. The ETR is a resource for nations with dual degree or single medical degree versions of the specialty. More importantly, it can act as a template for the handful of European Economic Area (EEA) nations that do not currently have a recognised OMFS specialty in Directive 2005/36 EU or the European Free Trade Association Treaty. By outlining the breadth and depth of the specialty, the ETR will be useful for competent regulatory authorities as well as OMFS trainees and trainers, patients, and politicians. The OMFS ETR includes key competencies and capabilities alongside training structures and documentation. A free unrestricted Access© database can be downloaded from www.omfsuesm.eu so OMFS experience can be recorded in a similar way across international borders. The OMFS ETR will be a living document. As it is unlikely that OMFS will remain frozen in time, this training document will also evolve. Its true value will become clear as it is used by current and future OMFS surgeons.